Tip #256: Three Cognitive Load Theory Effects

I had originally thought that I could simply tell you what the cognitive load theory effects are. However, when I looked at them more closely, I realized that I needed more information to even begin to understand them. The following is intended to provide some contextual explanation for the three cognitive load theory effects identified at the end of this week's Tip.

According to Fred Paas, Alexander Renkl and John Sweller in "Cognitive Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments' [2003], the manner in which information is presented to learners and the learning activities required of learners can impose a cognitive load. When that load is unnecessary and interferes with schema acquisition and automation, it is referred to as an extraneous or ineffective load.

They state that many conventional instructional procedures impose extraneous cognitive load because most instructional procedures were developed without any consideration or knowledge of the structure of information or cognitive architecture. For example, any instructional procedure that requires learners to engage in either a search for a problem solution or a search for referents in an explanation (i.e., when Part A of an explanation refers to Part B without clearly indicating where Part B is to be found) is likely to impose a heavy extraneous cognitive load because working memory resources must be used for activities that are irrelevant to schema acquisition and automation.

The use of worked examples rather than solving the equivalent problems is one of the earliest and probably the best known cognitive load reducing technique. In the earliest stages of learning, when intrinsic cognitive load is high because few schemas are available, learners should study instructions; during intermediate stages when schema formation has freed some working memory capacity, they should study worked examples and increase germane load by using self-explanations; in the final stages, there should be sufficient working memory capacity to permit more problem solving.

Complete worked examples are faded by successively eliminating sections of the worked example until eventually only a full problem remains. This fading technique has been found to be superior to the traditional procedure of alternating worked examples and problems.

According to Cognitive Load Theory and the Role of Learner Experience: An Abbreviated Review for Educational Practitioners (2008), by Anthony R. Artino, Jr., there are six cognitive load theory effects that reduce extraneous cognitive load. The first three relate to problem solving:

1. Goal-Free Effect means to replace conventional problems with goal-free problems that provide learners with a non-specific goal. This reduces extraneous load caused by relating a current problem state to a goal state and attempting to reduce the difference between them.

2. Worked Example Effect means to replace conventional problems with worked examples that must be carefully studied. This reduces extraneous load caused by weak-method problem solving.

3. Completion Problem Effect means to replace conventional problems with completion problems, providing a partial solution that must be completed by the learner. This reduces extraneous load because giving part of the solution reduces the size of the problem space.

If anyone can help to clarify this information and distill it down into layman's terms, I would be very grateful!

Next week, we will discuss the last three of the six cognitive load theory effects that reduce extraneous cognitive load.

Before we begin, I would like to ask your assistance. If anyone is aware of excellent training for either film making or for web design that is offered within driving distance of Wisconsin (Illinois, Minnesota, Iowa), I would appreciate it if you would let me know. Thank you!

A final reminder: Our four day Train the Trainer program: Designing and Delivering Dynamic Learning, which is scheduled for February 17-20 in Madison, Wisconsin, still has some slots open.

Last week, we looked at the first three of six cognitive load theory effects. This week, we will look at the last three cognitive load theory effects.

Tip #254: Introducing Cognitive Load Theory

In early December, Janis Taylor sent me this intriguing note:

I forget how I came across 'cognitive load theory' but I find it fascinating. I wonder if you have any good resources you could suggest or insights on the topic. I know when I'm learning something new I reach the point where I say, "Don't tell me anything else, I need to absorb this first." And I've observed the same with my learners when we try to introduce too many new concepts at the same time.

Maybe the subject of a future 'tip'?

Quite honestly, I had never even heard of cognitive load theory before. So, I started to collect as much information as I could about the topic. When I began to read some of the research articles, my initial response was: Thanks a lot, Janis! This is heavy stuff for someone who just wants sound bites!

Although the articles may not be written in a way that accomplishes this, the intention of cognitive load theory is to avoid overwhelming the learner with new information. My first source: Cognitive Load Theory and the Role of Learner Experience: An Abbreviated Review for Educational Practitioners (2008), by Anthony R. Artino, Jr., ( I was attracted by the promise of the abbreviated review!!) provided the following information: The basic premise of CLT is that learners have a working memory with very limited capacity when dealing with new information.

Many of us are already aware that working memory can only hold about seven (plus or minus two) items or chunks of information at a time. (That is why telephone numbers have only seven digits.)

Although working memory can hold only a limited number of items at a time, the size and complexity of those items are unlimited!

However, we are able to process (organize, contrast or compare) only two or three items of information at the same time.

And if new information in working memory is not rehearsed, it is lost within about 15-30 seconds!

So, how does CLT think we can expand the capacity of our working memory?

This is where long-term memory comes into play. The capacity of long-term memory is essentially limitless. The information held in long-term memory is organized and stored in schemas that categorize elements of information according to how they will be used. These schemas effectively expand working memory capacity because complex schemas consisting of huge arrays of interrelated elements can be held in working memory as a single entity.

Automation is another critical component of schema construction. Automation occurs when information stored in schemas can be processed automatically and without conscious effort, thereby freeing up working memory resources. Constructed schemas because automated after extensive practice.

Another important characteristic of working memory is that it has two separate channels for processing visual and auditory information. The implication of this dual-processing model is that limited working memory capacity can be effectively expanded by using both visual and auditory channels rather than either processing channels alone.

Tip #255: Three Types of Cognitive Load

The intention of cognitive load theory is to avoid overwhelming the learner with new information. I will do my best.

For the purpose of honest disclosure, all of the following information is drawn from Cognitive Load Theory and the Role of Learner Experience: An Abbreviated Review for Educational Practitioners (2008), by Anthony R. Artino, Jr.

Before we begin, we need to have some understanding of schemas and automation, and why they are important for learning.

Schemas categorize elements of information according to how they will be used. Schemas are how long-term memory organizes and stores information. Since complex schemas with many interrelated elements can be held in working memory as a single entity, these schemas effectively expand the capacity of working memory.

Automation is a critical component of schema construction. Automation occurs when information stored in schemas can be processed automatically and without conscious effort, thereby freeing up working memory resources. Constructed schemas become automated after extensive practice.

A key point is that entirely new tasks may be impossible to complete until prerequisite skills have been automated because there may not be enough working memory capacity available for learning. It is for this reason that, from a cognitive load perspective, schema construction and automation are the major goals for instruction.

Cognitive load theorists are concerned with the ease with which information can be processed in working memory. There are three different types of cognitive load, and only two of them are helpful to the learning process:

Intrinsic cognitive load

Extraneous or ineffective cognitive load

Germane or effective cognitive load

1. Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the number of elements that must be processed simultaneously in working memory for schema construction (element interactivity). Element interactivity is dependent on both the complexity of the to-be-learned material and the learners' expertise (their schema availability and automation).

2. Extraneous cognitive load (also known as ineffective cognitive load) is the result of instructional techniques that require learners to engage in working memory activities that are not directly related to schema construction or automation. Many commonly used instructional designs require learners to use cognitive resources that are not related to, or helpful for, learning (for example, searching for information that is needed to complete a learning task). Because intrinsic cognitive load due to element interactivity and extraneous cognitive load due to instructional design are added to each other, the end result may be fewer cognitive resources left in working memory to devote to schema construction and automation during learning. Consequently, learning may suffer. This is definitely the cognitive load you want to avoid.

3. Germane cognitive load (also known as effective cognitive load) is the result of beneficial cognitive processes such as abstractions and elaborations that are promoted by the instruction. When intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load leave sufficient working memory resources, learners may invest extra effort in processes that are directly relevant to learning, such as schema construction. These processes also increase cognitive load, but it is germane cognitive load that contributes to, rather than interferes with, learning.

Based on the cognitive demands imposed on working memory from the three sources of cognitive load, cognitive load theory suggests that instructional designers should focus on two tasks: (a) reduce extraneous cognitive load and (b) encourage learners to apply available resources to advanced cognitive processes that are associated with germane cognitive load.

This is very heavy stuff. I think it is well worth wading through because an understanding of cognitive load will enable us to design more effective learning activities. However, I'm wondering how you are holding up.

Next week, I plan to discuss the first three out of six cognitive load theory effects that reduce extraneous cognitive load- unless you write in screaming "Enough!"

Last week, I mentioned my plan to discuss the first three out of six cognitive load theory effects that reduce extraneous cognitive load- unless you wrote in screaming "Enough!!"

Janis Taylor, who started this entire conversation, replied: "Thanks so much for all the effort you put into this research Deborah. I really appreciate it and hope it doesn't overload the recipients of your tips. No pun intended."

Porter Williams responded: "NOT ENOUGH! " I quite liked this. Please expand on it.

Tracy Hudrlik wrote: I am finding this fascinating. "I can't wait until next week. It is interesting that having someone look up information is not helpful........I will have to remember that one."

So, then, on we go!

Tip #253: Teaching Complex Data Entry

In early December, Nichole Codrington, a Training Coordinator for Mylan Technologies, Inc., sent in this message:

"A topic that I would like some info on one of these days (if you are ever looking for a topic) is on how to make training lively and engaging on boring topics. Specifically on filling out complex forms. People at our company often have to train others on how to fill out very complex forms and it can be truly awful boring stuff. I would love some ideas on how to help them make their training more engaging, interactive and meaningful while still getting the outcome of people filling out the forms correctly."

I was brainstorming on using e-learning for this as well. Articulate has some features like hotspots and such that could be engaging. If you have any examples of e-learning about how to fill out a form I would love to see them.

Nichole, thanks for your patience while we completed our quick tips in December.

I have a number of thoughts about possible approaches you might try:

1. Make sure there is an organizing principle. By this I mean that there is something familiar to which the participants can relate the form.
I once audited training conducted by a state Department of Transportation in which the participants were being taught how to fill out a complex form. It was apparent that the participants were having difficulty remembering a long list of unrelated information. It wasn't until lunch time, when I could chat with the instructor, that I found out the actual form they were filling out was a driver's license application form. Although every participant in the room, at one time or another, had filled out that form, they hadn't recognized what it was- or had it identified for them. Once they knew what the form was, and recognized that they themselves had experience with the form, everything fell neatly into place.

2. Keep in mind that when people are learning information that is entirely new and unfamiliar to them, you should only introduce 2-3 items at a time. If possible, teach the different sections of the form at different times, independent of each other. Provide a story problem or scenario that gives the necessary information from which the participants need to draw to complete that section of the form.

3. If you can make the information meaningful to the participants, or if they are already familiar with the information requested by the form, you can introduce 4-5 items at a time. Again, using a story problem- either a realistic one or one that is humorous- can add interest to the learning experience.

4. What about having the participants compare completed sections of the new form to similar completed sections of the old form, if there is one? You could assign different tables to prepare to explain to the rest of the group: (a) what information has stayed the same; (b) what changes have been made to the form; (c ) why the changes were made; and (d) what the consequences will be as a result of these changes. For this, they would also need reference materials with background information about the changes.

5. I spent 10 years working in state government, where we were very good about telling folks WHAT they needed to do and WHEN they needed to do it- but rarely WHY it was important for them to do it. Without that context, it is very difficult for people to remember and/or buy in to a change. So, make sure to tell them WHY different information is needed, if you don't have them discover and report it out themselves to the larger group.

6. Since adults are competitive, you might make a fun game out of completing the form correctly. For example, have each member of a 5 person table group responsible for completing one section of the form. Keep the form going around the table until all sections have been completed. Then have the tables pass their completed forms to the table on their right, so each table can critique the work of another table. Draw the correct answers from participants at the different tables- and reward the table groups that completed their forms correctly. Hopefully, every table will get a prize!

7. It helps to have a large glass jar, filled to the brim with colorful peanut M&M's, sitting on the front table. As you begin the training, you can raise their interest by telling them that their correct completion of the form will help the participants at one of the tables win the contents of the jar. You will definitely have their attention!!

8. You could provide or ask the participants to come up with an easy-to-remember acronym for the steps involved in completing the form.

9. You could have the participants create lyrics about how to complete the form using a familiar tune. I've mentioned in earlier Tips that, to this day, I still have to sing with Jiminy Cricket when I spell ENCYCLOPEDIA! (I was singing it to myself to spell it correctly now!)

10. You could place a description of each step for completing the form on a separate note card, put all the note card into an envelope, and distribute one envelope to each table group. Then give the signal to start and see how quickly and correctly they can place the note cards in the proper order.

11. You could create a relay race using the acronym for the steps to fill out the form. Write each letter of the acronym vertically, one letter below the prior letter, on the left hand side of a flip chart page. Count out 12 paces from the flip chart and put a strip of marking tape on the floor to identify the starting place for the relay. Follow these same steps to set up a second flip chart, so that you can have two teams competing against each other. Then each person on the team needs to take a marking pen and fill in one step at a time that relates to the acronym. You can then have each team review the other team's work to make sure that each list is correct- and reward both teams.

12. What about a gallery walk, with each page labeled to relate to one section of the form. For example, Tips for Completing Section 1. Break the group into five or six smaller teams, give each team a different colored marker, then have each team start in front of a different flip chart page. Give them 2-3 minutes to brainstorm their ideas- then ring a bell and have each team move to their right, so eventually every team will have a chance to identify tips for every flip chart. Have individuals read what it written, getting clarification from the writing group responsible where necessary. Take digital pictures of the flip charts and provide them to the group after the session. This will refresh their memories and reinforce their learning.

Well, you already know my preference for even-numbered lists (sorry again, Lou). If you have other ideas to add, please write in and we'll print them next week.

Also, I have neatly avoided Nichole's question about the use of e-learning. I'm counting on those of you who are less technologically-challenged and more e-learning astute to give her some suggestions. Please don't fail me!!

Next week, we are going to tackle a very interesting topic that Janis Taylor mentioned to me as a possible Tip in early December: cognitive load theory. Are we starting the year with heavy-hitting topics or what?

Last week, I requested your assistance in responding to Nichole Codrington's request for information about how to use e-learning to teach complex data entry, after Tip #253 identified twelve ways to teach it in the classroom. Judi Lepper, SPHR, Officer, Instructional Designer III, Private Client Group at National City sent in this wonderful response:

Hi Deb! "Thanks for the great newsletter. I have a few suggestions regarding e-learning solutions to the complex form question, and many of the same approaches you have suggested for ILT may be implemented in the e-learning. My first question would be, is the complex form to be completed an online form?" "If so, Nichole can add interactivity in the e-learning in a number of different ways:

Using screen captures for the form, allow a pop-up or explanation box to appear when they roll over certain fields so they can explore at their own pace and learn the value and importance of why each field is important.

Provide guided practice completing the form, e.g. "Based on the given scenario, select the appropriate option from the drop-down". The e-learning can then provide corrective feedback based on the learner's choice, to help them understand WHY it was right or wrong.

Using screen captures, provide the learner with practice completing the entire form based on the elements that they have learned above. There are several screen capture tools to enable this kind of practice, and to demo the appropriate completion (i.e. Captivate)

I echo all of Deb's points about chunking the material, explaining WHY it is important, having an organizing principle, etc. In addition, each activity Deb mentioned below can be adapted to the e-learning. Make sure to keep the e-learning as engaging as possible, using games, puzzles, relay races, etc. Lectora (authoring tool) just released version 9 which includes a Media Library with several games they are excellent ways of teaching material in creative ways.

I hope this helps.

Judi, Nichole was thrilled with this information when I sent it to her last week. Thank you from both of us!

Janis Taylor, Technical Training Developer, PMCC - Product Lifecycle Data Management, Philips Healthcare also responded:

Feedback for Nichole: Regarding an e-learning option for training on your forms: If the form is completed on paper today then I wouldn't consider it. If the form is completed electronically, then yes, e-learning is an option. And it can be combined with many of the good options Deborah describes below. In other words it doesn't have to be all e-learning or all classroom, but a combination. Maybe an e-learning 'prework' component followed by classroom?

Janis, thank you, as always, for adding your perspective!

We have Janis to thank as well for the topic of today's Tip: cognitive load theory.